Cicero
begins this final book with a preface that tells his brother Quintus that
Crassus spoke many “divinely inspired words” and was a “divinely gifted man”
(225). He spoke like a swan, and swans were believed to sing more beautifully
when they were about to die. In a footnote to this passage, James May and Jakob
Wisse write that “Socrates in Plato’s Phaedo
(84-85) interprets [the likeness of a speaker to a swan] as a sign of
prophetic powers” (225n5).
Then
the story continues. Most of the interlocutors rested during the noon hour, but
Crassus spent it in intense reading. When it is time for him to speak, he
begins by saying that style and content cannot be separated: “I have the
impression that those great men of the past, having grasped in their minds
something of a higher order, have thereby seen much more than our mind’s eye,
today, is able to contemplate: they said that all the universe above and below
us is a unity and is bound together by a single, natural force and harmony”
(230). So there ought to be agreement and harmony between all disciplines, and
true eloquence forms that unity. Speech is like a river that branches into many
smaller streams but still comes from the same source. Since things aren’t
separated as we sometimes think they are, a person’s words cannot be separated
from that person’s thoughts. Hence, “discovering words for a distinguished
style is impossible without having produced and shaped the thoughts,” and “no
thought can shine clearly without the enlightening power of words” (231).
Each
speaker, however, has a distinct style, and all are talented in their own way.
So it is the responsibility of teachers to see which students have which
talents and to adapt instruction in such a way as to maximize the learning and
potential of all students. One must speak with clarity, distinction, and in a
way that is both suitable and appropriate to the situation. Orators should
learn to control breathing, their tongue, and the sound of their voice. Orators
should also use common words and avoid both ambiguity and overly long periodic
sentences. No one admires an orator for speaking correct Latin, but they do
make fun of one that doesn’t, so speaking correctly is necessary. One may
refine grammar and diction by reading other orators and poets.
And
then there’s this key passage which I will quote in full:
“For
the true orator ought to have examined and heard and read and discussed and
thoroughly treated all aspects of human life, since it is with them that the
orator is engaged, and it is this that constitutes his material. Eloquence,
after all, has its own place among the supreme virtues. Of course, all the
virtues are equal and equivalent, but still, one is more beautiful and splendid
in appearance than another. This is the case with the power that I am talking about:
having acquired all-embracing knowledge, it unfolds the thoughts and counsels
of the mind in words, in such a way that it can drive the audience in whatever
direction it has applied its weight. And the greater this power is, the more
necessary it is to join it to integrity and the highest measure of good sense.
For if we put the full resources of speech at the disposal of those who lack
these virtues, we will certainly not make orators of them, but will put weapons
into the hands of madmen” (239).
The
ancients, Crassus continues, didn’t separate speech and act: “For the old form of learning seems to
have taught both right actions and good speech. Nor were the teachers separated
from each other, but the same people gave instructions for living and for
speaking” (240). Disciplines became separated when people began to notice that
they could prosper if they would specialize. A rupture between the tongue and
the heart is also harmful. The best philosophers also said that “eloquence is a
virtue and a form of wisdom” (244), and “used to link the principles of oratory
with the entire study and knowledge of everything that was relevant to human
conduct, to human life, to virtue, and to the state” (246). These ancients
meant for there to be “communion between speaking and understanding” (247).
Hence,
true eloquence includes everything: “The real power of eloquence is so enormous
that its scope includes the origin, essence, and transformations of everything:
virtues, moral duties, and all the laws of nature that govern human conduct,
characters, and life. It establishes traditions, laws, and legal arrangements,
governs the State, and addresses with distinction and copiousness all questions
belonging to any area whatsoever” (248). An orator is an actor. Sure, this is a
lofty ideal, but we’re examining the ideal orator, and we do the same thing
when we theoretically examine any other art or skill—we try to see it in its
best, most ideal, and fullest form possible.
Crassus
then discusses style. He says that sweetness and poetic diction in speech can sometimes
be effective, but we can’t stand to eat sweet food all day, so moderation is
best. The best speeches shift back and forth from the specific to the general
because the specific addresses particular concerns, but the general principles enable
audience members to apply things in multiple contexts. To become better
orators, we must put good things into our minds—the best things, actually. And
since all subjects are connected with one another, any good we can gain will
help us become effective speakers. The same is true with virtue and the
virtues. Plato was a teacher of speech, of the mind, and of virtue.
Crassus
goes on to say that metaphors are useful because the mind’s eye is drawn more
easily to things we have seen than to things we have only heard. He discusses tropes
and figures, juxtaposition, rhythm, and periodic structure. Good rhythm is
pleasing to an audience. Crassus mentions figures of thought and figures of
speech and their usage, but the underlying rule is that, no matter what, “In
every area, the capacity to do what is appropriate is a matter of art and
natural ability, but to know what is appropriate at each time is a matter of
intelligence” (290).
Finally,
Crassus discusses delivery, what he calls the dominant factor in oratory.
Orators are actors because they must use their voice, gestures, facial
expressions, and eyes effectively. Delivery is “wholly a matter of the soul,
and the face is an image of the soul, while the eyes reflect it” (294). In
fact, everything is dominated by the eyes. Put another way, “Delivery is, so to
speak, the language of the body, which makes it all the more essential that it
should correspond to what we intend to say” (294). Delivery is so important and
influential because human beings want to see a speech performed. The most
useful is the most appropriate.
Crassus
concludes by saying that his speech isn’t perfect, but it’s the best he could
do. Catulus thinks it was awesome, though, and the group decides to rest their
minds after the long discussion.
Links to Additional Brief Summaries of On the Ideal Orator (De Oratore)
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